[67][68], The "absolute" rule of powerful monarchs such as Louis XIV (ruled France 1643–1715),[69] Peter the Great (ruled Russia 1682–1725),[70] Maria Theresa (ruled Habsburg lands 1740–1780) and Frederick the Great (ruled Prussia 1740–86),[71] produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king.[72]. Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Francis II of Austria barely clung to their thrones. Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman Emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought prosperity to Britain and Western Europe. A Multi-Level Class Analysis of the Causes of the First World War. [99], Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Meanwhile, the Roman Republic strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars. By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). Widespread economic prosperity was typical of the period before 1914, and 1920–1929. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. In the Eastern part the dominant state was the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914. It sponsored devotional reforms that gained wide support among the churchgoers. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.[105]. European diplomats and intellectuals saw the Greek struggle for independence, with its accounts of Turkish atrocities, in a romantic light. From approximately 1200 AD through 1800 AD, homicide rates from violent local episodes declined by a factor of ten, from approximately 32 deaths per 100 000 people to 3.2 per 100 000. Yet Europeans have also been in the forefront of intellectual, social, and economic endeavour. In the beginning of the 2nd century BC, only three major kingdoms remained: the Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid Empire and Macedonia. After the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. On 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Armée of nearly 700,000 troops. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus,[10][11] Macedonia,[12][13] on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant,[14] Cyprus[15] and Italy. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. The greatest uncertainty lies to the east, where natural frontiers are notoriously elusive. Historian Russell Weigley argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost. A peaceful Europe – the beginnings of cooperation. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western Emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Duke of Marlborough commanded the English and Dutch victory at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704. In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union dominated the political landscape, while England fought with Scotland in the Wars of Scottish Independence and with France in the Hundred Years' War. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. 1948–1951: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the, 1955: USSR creates a rival military coalition, the, 2004: Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus and Malta, Forlenza, Rosario. Charlemagne (c.742-814), also known as Karl and Charles the Great, was a medieval emperor who ruled much of Western Europe from 768 … In the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain's American colonies. "The Muslims in Europe". Widely influential was the 1848 pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto. Emperor Napoleon selected as Grand Master of France his own brother. Major explorations after the Age of Discovery, List of largest European cities in history, List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe, List of sovereign states by date of formation § Europe, "The Human Journey: Early Settlements in Europe", National Geographic Italia – Erano padani i primi abitanti d’Italia, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/oldest-gold-object-unearthed-bulgaria-180960093/, "Aegeobalkan Prehistory – Mycenaean Sites", Use and appreciation of Mycenaean pottery in the Levant, Cyprus and Italy, The Mycenaeans and Italy: the archaeological and archaeometric ceramic evidence, "Scientists Identify Genes Critical to Transmission of Bubonic Plague", "Beyond War and Contracts: The Medieval and Religious Roots of the European State", "An Interview with Konrad H. Jarausch, author of Out of Ashes: A New History of Europe in the Twentieth Century", Princeton University Press, June 2015, Peacemakers: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War, "The Marshall Plan: History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program", "NATO's Eastward Expansion: Calming Russian Fears", 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198227458.001.0001, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848-1918, Europe at War 1939-1945: No Simple Victory, 10.23943/princeton/9780691147055.001.0001, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960777319000146, EurhistXX: The Network for the Contemporary History of Europe, Contains information on historical trends in living standards in various European countries, Vistorica – Timelines of European modern history, Sovereign states and dependent territories, Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO), North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA), Customs Union of Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Russia (CUBKR), https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Europe&oldid=1007386396, Articles with Italian-language sources (it), Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference, Articles with unsourced statements from August 2015, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2009, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. The 1920s were prosperous until 1929 when the Great Depression broke out, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, based on coal, steam, and textile mills. For a discussion of the physical and human geography of the continent, see Europe. Eméric Crucé (1623) came up with the idea of the European Council, intended to end wars in Europe; attempts to create lasting peace were no success, although all European countries (except the Russian and Ottoman Empires, regarded as foreign) agreed to make peace in 1518 at the Treaty of London. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent Poland, which survived until 1939. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. Europe is a more ambiguous term than most geographic expressions. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation set up Protestant churches primarily in Germany, Scandinavia and England. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole. From 1870, Otto von Bismarck engineered a German hegemony of Europe that put France in a critical situation. [116] In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France. [130][131], France became a republic, but until the 1880s there was a strong popular demand for return to monarchy. Updates? The Romans called themselves lords of the world. [88], The great enemy of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between supporters of the Church versus active Masons. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. The last Neanderthals seem to have been forced to retreat during this process to the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. Was the euro introduced in 1999? History of Europe, account of European peoples and cultures beginning with the first appearance of anatomically modern humans in Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany's military power and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on its shoulders – the humiliation and resentment in Germany was probably one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a cause of World War II. [89][90] 20th-century totalitarian and revolutionary movements, especially the Fascists and Communists, crushed the Freemasons.[91]. In the advanced northwest, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought. It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a Counter-Enlightenment began to increase in prominence. ", Karen Hagemann, "Of 'manly valor' and 'German Honor': nation, war, and masculinity in the age of the Prussian uprising against Napoleon.". The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuq Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. It is a story of suffering that parallels the trials of Jews in Europe. EU did not participate in the Yugoslav Wars, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 Iraq War. The Catholic Church concentrated more power in the papacy and fought against secularism and socialism. The 17th century was an era of crisis. [125], After the defeat of revolutionary France, the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. [128], Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, parlayed his famous name and to widespread popularity across France . However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). Steven C. Bullock, "Initiating the enlightenment? Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. World War I cost more than 8 million European lives, World War II more than 18 million in battle, bombing, and systematic Nazi genocide—to say nothing of the 30 million who perished elsewhere. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis within the Hispano-Visigothic society to carry out their conquests. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for.[158]. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others. Citizens' forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great. In 722 Don Pelayo, a nobleman of Visigothic origin, formed an army of 300 Astur soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. Violent power struggles between nations and rulers shook the continent. He antagonized Great Britain and failed to appreciate the danger of war with Prussia. The finals brought the division of the Soviet Union into 15 non-communist states in 1991. Secular bodies took control of education away from the churches, abolished taxes and tithes for the support of established religions, and excluded bishops from the upper houses. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. Fascists took control in Italy, and the even more aggressive Nazi movement led by Adolf Hitler took control of Germany, 1933–45. The European Union continues today, but with German economic dominance. Looking at the half century after the war historian Walter Lacquer concluded: The post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and Eastern empires. In the Eastern part of Europe new dominant states formed: the Avar Khaganate (567–after 822), Old Great Bulgaria (632–668), the Khazar Khaganate (c. 650–969) and Danube Bulgaria (founded by Asparuh in 680) were constantly rivaling the hegemony of the Byzantine Empire. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. [33] This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula. Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city states under his control. During the eight-year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule – save for small areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden. [26] The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian (284–305). Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions.[164]. Siberia, Far East – and south, to the "warm seas") was in a continuous state of financial crisis, which it covered by borrowing from Amsterdam and issuing paper money that caused inflation. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria (the Habsburg Monarchy). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "Roaring Twenties" or "Jazz Age" that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. Since the mid-8th century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. Limited ability of the smaller EU nations (most notably Greece) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. The most popular myth about Europa says that she was the daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician king, and later became a wife of Zeus, the King of Gods. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. [127], The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. The Vikings had left a cultural influnce on the Anglo-Saxons and Franks as well as the Scots. [149], The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Muslims, and the Normans colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern. [84] Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as enlightened absolutism. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice. [37] His death marked the beginning of the end of the dynasty, which collapsed entirely by 888. The Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean (Asian Minor, Sicily and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia). "[79], Ibrahim Muteferrika, Rational basis for the Politics of Nations (1731)[80], The Enlightenment was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of reason rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church). It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the European Economic Area. Nevertheless, the profits of the slave trade and of plantations of the West Indies, then the most profitable of all the British colonies, amounted to less than 5% of the British Empire's economy (but was generally more profitable) at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. Jewish ghettos were abolished. France and West Germany took the lead in forming the European Economic Community, which eventually became the European Union (EU). Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus', emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. Hello Select your address Books Hello, Sign in. Due to the emergency of war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien de Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country's executive. The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Manuel Eisner, "Long-term historical trends in violent crime. At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required Poland to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the Estates-General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. [5] Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the Elbe river, tripling the size of Germany in the process.

Kezi Weather Girl Pregnant, How Many Slices Of Turkey Is 56 Grams, How To Juice Ginger In A Juicer, How To Make Metal Arrowheads, Hijinx Box Wine Chardonnay, Can Mewing Fix Receding Chin, Convert Blob To String Apex Salesforce, Otterbox Drop Test Iphone 11, Mitchy Slick Instagram, Sulfolobus Solfataricus Facts,